En-en adult card 10 aerosols - Revision history

X4resilience: added reference to deaths from fossil fuel burning as Consequeces

2021-12-15T13:39:11Z

added reference to deaths from fossil fuel burning as Consequeces

← Older revision		Revision as of 15:39, 15 December 2021
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	*[[En-en_adult_card_15_radiative_forcing\|Radiative forcing]] Aerosols cool down the climate.		*[[En-en_adult_card_15_radiative_forcing\|Radiative forcing]] Aerosols cool down the climate.
	*[[En-en_adult_card_38_human_health\|Human health]] Although aerosols are not alone in the "fine particle" category, every year 391,000 people in EU countries die from air pollution<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/fr/highlights/la-pollution-atmospherique-reste-trop Air pollution remains too high throughout Europe (French)]</ref>, and it causes 1.1 million premature deaths in India and China<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/l-inde-rattrape-la-chine-en-nombre-de-morts-de-la-pollution_110560 India catches up with China in the number of deaths from pollution (French)]</ref>.		*[[En-en_adult_card_38_human_health\|Human health]] Although aerosols are not alone in the "fine particle" category, every year 391,000 people in EU countries die from air pollution<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/fr/highlights/la-pollution-atmospherique-reste-trop Air pollution remains too high throughout Europe (French)]</ref>, and it causes 1.1 million premature deaths in India and China<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/l-inde-rattrape-la-chine-en-nombre-de-morts-de-la-pollution_110560 India catches up with China in the number of deaths from pollution (French)]</ref>. Air pollution such as soot caused by the burning of fossil fuels such as coal and oil was responsible for 8.7m deaths globally in 2018. <ref>Fossil fuel air pollution responsible for 1 in 5 deaths [https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/c-change/news/fossil-fuel-air-pollution-responsible-for-1-in-5-deaths-worldwide/ worldwide]</ref><ref>'Invisible killer': fossil fuels caused 8.7m deaths globally in 2018, research finds [https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/09/fossil-fuels-pollution-deaths-research]</ref>

	==Other possible links==		==Other possible links==

Karen Schmitt: Missing link

2021-11-01T10:30:06Z

Missing link

← Older revision		Revision as of 12:30, 1 November 2021
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	*[[En-en_adult_card_2_industry\|Industry]]		*[[En-en_adult_card_2_industry\|Industry]]
	*[[En-en_adult_card_4_transportation\|Transportation]]		*[[En-en_adult_card_4_transportation\|Transportation]]
			*[[En-en adult card 5 fossil fuels\|Fossil fuels]]

	===Consequences===		===Consequences===

Karen Schmitt: Structure change

2021-10-30T12:53:48Z

Structure change

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:53, 30 October 2021
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	{{Card		== Card #10: Aerosols ==
	\|~~number=10~~		<center>
	~~\|version=adult~~
	~~\|title=~~Aerosols		[[File:En-en_adult_card_10_front.png\|400px]]
	}}
			Nothing to do with aerosol spray cans. Aerosols are a type of local pollution that comes from the incomplete combustion of fossil fuels. They are bad for human health and they negatively contribute to radiative forcing, meaning that they have a cooling effect on the climate.

			</center>

	== Definitions ==		== Definitions ==

Karen Schmitt: Structure adaptation for Memo

2021-04-04T09:52:20Z

Structure adaptation for Memo

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:52, 4 April 2021
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	Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.		Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.

	== ~~To go further~~ ==		== Correction==

	~~=== Origins of anthropogenic aerosols ===~~		===Causes===
	Aerosols are a form of local pollution caused by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. When we burn fossil fuels, a perfect and complete combustion produces only CO<sub>2</sub> and water vapour. However, the hydrocarbons we burn are not pure and the combustion is not complete. Therefore, polluting gases such as NOx or carbon monoxide and aerosols such as black carbon (soot) or hydrogen sulphide are also emitted.

	~~=== Natural Aerosols ===~~
	If clouds already existed before the industrial era, it is because aerosols exist in their natural state. They are for example microscopic grains of sand, salt crystals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as microorganisms blown by the wind from the leaves of trees. The micro-droplets of water that make up clouds can only form on a condensation core such as an aerosol.

	~~=== Uncertainty related to the calculation of the influence of aerosols ===~~
	Although aerosols are thought to cool the climate on average, their total contribution is the result of warming and cooling effects with great uncertainty. The sum of the two is therefore highly subject to uncertainty. The Futura Science article [https://www.futura-sciences.com/planete/dossiers/climatologie-tant-incertitudes-previsions-climatiques-638/ Why so many uncertainties in climate predictions?] (in French) provides a good understanding of the origin of these uncertainties.
	~~==Correction==~~

	===Causes ===

	*[[En-en_adult_card_2_industry\|Industry]]		*[[En-en_adult_card_2_industry\|Industry]]
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	===Consequences===		===Consequences===

	*[[En-en_adult_card_15_radiative_forcing\|Radiative forcing]] Ce qui est expliqué au dos de la carte 10 et dans la nouvelle version de la carte 15 (> oct 2018) : Les aérosols refroidissent le climat. Voir les fiches thématiques sur les aérosols et sur le forçage radiatif.		*[[En-en_adult_card_15_radiative_forcing\|Radiative forcing]] Aerosols cool down the climate.
	*[[En-en_adult_card_38_human_health\|Human health]] Although aerosols are not alone in the "fine particle" category, every year 391,000 people in EU countries die from air pollution<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/fr/highlights/la-pollution-atmospherique-reste-trop Air pollution remains too high throughout Europe (French)]</ref>, and it causes 1.1 million premature deaths in India and China<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/l-inde-rattrape-la-chine-en-nombre-de-morts-de-la-pollution_110560 India catches up with China in the number of deaths from pollution (French)]</ref>.		*[[En-en_adult_card_38_human_health\|Human health]] Although aerosols are not alone in the "fine particle" category, every year 391,000 people in EU countries die from air pollution<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/fr/highlights/la-pollution-atmospherique-reste-trop Air pollution remains too high throughout Europe (French)]</ref>, and it causes 1.1 million premature deaths in India and China<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/l-inde-rattrape-la-chine-en-nombre-de-morts-de-la-pollution_110560 India catches up with China in the number of deaths from pollution (French)]</ref>.

	==Other possible links==		==Other possible links==

	===Other causes===		=== Other causes===
	[[En-en adult card 3 building\|Building usage]] Buildings emit few aerosols directly. The only significant emissions are chimney fires. In Chamonix, 85% of the fine particles present in the atmosphere come from wood heating<ref>[https://www.lemonde.fr/pollution/article/2016/12/08/dans-la-vallee-de-chamonix-le-chauffage-au-bois-est-le-principal-coupable-de-la-pollution_5045636_1652666.html In the Chamonix valley, wood heating is the main culprit of pollution (French).]</ref>.		[[En-en adult card 3 building\|Building usage]] Buildings emit few aerosols directly. The only significant emissions are chimney fires. In Chamonix, 85% of the fine particles present in the atmosphere come from wood heating<ref>[https://www.lemonde.fr/pollution/article/2016/12/08/dans-la-vallee-de-chamonix-le-chauffage-au-bois-est-le-principal-coupable-de-la-pollution_5045636_1652666.html In the Chamonix valley, wood heating is the main culprit of pollution (French).]</ref>.

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	[[En-en adult card 13 additional greenhouse effect\|Card 13]] can be used to explain this: Aerosols mainly play on the orange arrows (they increase the size of the "Reflection" arrow, while the additional greenhouse effect plays on the red arrows (it increases the size of the "Greenhouse Effect" arrow which returns to the earth).		[[En-en adult card 13 additional greenhouse effect\|Card 13]] can be used to explain this: Aerosols mainly play on the orange arrows (they increase the size of the "Reflection" arrow, while the additional greenhouse effect plays on the red arrows (it increases the size of the "Greenhouse Effect" arrow which returns to the earth).

			==To go further==

			===Origins of anthropogenic aerosols===
			Aerosols are a form of local pollution caused by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. When we burn fossil fuels, a perfect and complete combustion produces only CO<sub>2</sub> and water vapour. However, the hydrocarbons we burn are not pure and the combustion is not complete. Therefore, polluting gases such as NOx or carbon monoxide and aerosols such as black carbon (soot) or hydrogen sulphide are also emitted.

			===Natural Aerosols===
			If clouds already existed before the industrial era, it is because aerosols exist in their natural state. They are for example microscopic grains of sand, salt crystals, volatile organic compounds (VOCs) such as microorganisms blown by the wind from the leaves of trees. The micro-droplets of water that make up clouds can only form on a condensation core such as an aerosol.

			===Uncertainty related to the calculation of the influence of aerosols===
			Although aerosols are thought to cool the climate on average, their total contribution is the result of warming and cooling effects with great uncertainty. The sum of the two is therefore highly subject to uncertainty. The Futura Science article [https://www.futura-sciences.com/planete/dossiers/climatologie-tant-incertitudes-previsions-climatiques-638/ Why so many uncertainties in climate predictions?] (in French) provides a good understanding of the origin of these uncertainties.

	==References==		==References==

Karen Schmitt: Structure adaptation for Memo

2021-04-02T12:59:38Z

Structure adaptation for Memo

← Older revision		Revision as of 14:59, 2 April 2021
Line 18:		Line 18:
	=== Uncertainty related to the calculation of the influence of aerosols ===		=== Uncertainty related to the calculation of the influence of aerosols ===
	Although aerosols are thought to cool the climate on average, their total contribution is the result of warming and cooling effects with great uncertainty. The sum of the two is therefore highly subject to uncertainty. The Futura Science article [https://www.futura-sciences.com/planete/dossiers/climatologie-tant-incertitudes-previsions-climatiques-638/ Why so many uncertainties in climate predictions?] (in French) provides a good understanding of the origin of these uncertainties.		Although aerosols are thought to cool the climate on average, their total contribution is the result of warming and cooling effects with great uncertainty. The sum of the two is therefore highly subject to uncertainty. The Futura Science article [https://www.futura-sciences.com/planete/dossiers/climatologie-tant-incertitudes-previsions-climatiques-638/ Why so many uncertainties in climate predictions?] (in French) provides a good understanding of the origin of these uncertainties.
			==Correction==

	== ~~Other possible links~~ ==		===Causes ===

	=== ~~Causes~~ ===		*[[En-en_adult_card_2_industry\|Industry]]
			*[[En-en_adult_card_4_transportation\|Transportation]]

			===Consequences===

			*[[En-en_adult_card_15_radiative_forcing\|Radiative forcing]] Ce qui est expliqué au dos de la carte 10 et dans la nouvelle version de la carte 15 (> oct 2018) : Les aérosols refroidissent le climat. Voir les fiches thématiques sur les aérosols et sur le forçage radiatif.
			*[[En-en_adult_card_38_human_health\|Human health]] Although aerosols are not alone in the "fine particle" category, every year 391,000 people in EU countries die from air pollution<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/fr/highlights/la-pollution-atmospherique-reste-trop Air pollution remains too high throughout Europe (French)]</ref>, and it causes 1.1 million premature deaths in India and China<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/l-inde-rattrape-la-chine-en-nombre-de-morts-de-la-pollution_110560 India catches up with China in the number of deaths from pollution (French)]</ref>.

			==Other possible links==

			===Other causes===
	[[En-en adult card 3 building\|Building usage]] Buildings emit few aerosols directly. The only significant emissions are chimney fires. In Chamonix, 85% of the fine particles present in the atmosphere come from wood heating<ref>[https://www.lemonde.fr/pollution/article/2016/12/08/dans-la-vallee-de-chamonix-le-chauffage-au-bois-est-le-principal-coupable-de-la-pollution_5045636_1652666.html In the Chamonix valley, wood heating is the main culprit of pollution (French).]</ref>.		[[En-en adult card 3 building\|Building usage]] Buildings emit few aerosols directly. The only significant emissions are chimney fires. In Chamonix, 85% of the fine particles present in the atmosphere come from wood heating<ref>[https://www.lemonde.fr/pollution/article/2016/12/08/dans-la-vallee-de-chamonix-le-chauffage-au-bois-est-le-principal-coupable-de-la-pollution_5045636_1652666.html In the Chamonix valley, wood heating is the main culprit of pollution (French).]</ref>.

	~~=== Consequences ===~~		==Facilitation advice==
	[[En-en adult card 38 human health\|Human health]] Although aerosols are not alone in the "fine particle" category, every year 391,000 people in EU countries die from air pollution<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/fr/highlights/la-pollution-atmospherique-reste-trop Air pollution remains too high throughout Europe (French)]</ref>, and it causes 1.1 million premature deaths in India and China<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/l-inde-rattrape-la-chine-en-nombre-de-morts-de-la-pollution_110560 India catches up with China in the number of deaths from pollution (French)]</ref>.

	== Facilitation advice ==
	This card can be removed most of the time, unless the players are likely to understand it, have the time and the facilitator has a good grasp of the subject.		This card can be removed most of the time, unless the players are likely to understand it, have the time and the facilitator has a good grasp of the subject.

	[[En-en adult card 13 additional greenhouse effect\|Card 13]] can be used to explain this: Aerosols mainly play on the orange arrows (they increase the size of the "Reflection" arrow, while the additional greenhouse effect plays on the red arrows (it increases the size of the "Greenhouse Effect" arrow which returns to the earth).		[[En-en adult card 13 additional greenhouse effect\|Card 13]] can be used to explain this: Aerosols mainly play on the orange arrows (they increase the size of the "Reflection" arrow, while the additional greenhouse effect plays on the red arrows (it increases the size of the "Greenhouse Effect" arrow which returns to the earth).

	== References ==		==References==
	<references />		<references />

	[[fr:Fr-fr_adulte_carte_10_aérosols]]		[[fr:Fr-fr_adulte_carte_10_aérosols]]

Karen Schmitt: Minor corrections

2021-02-13T09:38:29Z

Minor corrections

← Older revision		Revision as of 11:38, 13 February 2021
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	== To go further ==		== To go further ==

	=== ~~Origin~~ of anthropogenic aerosols ===		=== Origins of anthropogenic aerosols ===
	Aerosols are a local pollution caused by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. When we burn fossil fuels, a perfect and complete combustion produces only ~~CO2~~ and water vapour. However, the hydrocarbons we burn are not pure and the combustion is not complete. Therefore, polluting gases such as NOx or carbon monoxide and aerosols such as black carbon (soot) or hydrogen sulphide are also emitted.		Aerosols are a form of local pollution caused by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons. When we burn fossil fuels, a perfect and complete combustion produces only CO<sub>2</sub> and water vapour. However, the hydrocarbons we burn are not pure and the combustion is not complete. Therefore, polluting gases such as NOx or carbon monoxide and aerosols such as black carbon (soot) or hydrogen sulphide are also emitted.

	=== Natural Aerosols ===		=== Natural Aerosols ===
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	=== Consequences ===		=== Consequences ===
	[[En-en adult card 38 human health\|Human health]] Although aerosols are not alone in the "fine particle" category, every year 391 000 people in EU countries die from air pollution<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/fr/highlights/la-pollution-atmospherique-reste-trop Air pollution remains too high throughout Europe (French)]</ref>, and it causes 1.1 million premature deaths in India and China<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/l-inde-rattrape-la-chine-en-nombre-de-morts-de-la-pollution_110560 India catches up with China in the number of deaths from pollution (French)]</ref>.		[[En-en adult card 38 human health\|Human health]] Although aerosols are not alone in the "fine particle" category, every year 391,000 people in EU countries die from air pollution<ref>[https://www.eea.europa.eu/fr/highlights/la-pollution-atmospherique-reste-trop Air pollution remains too high throughout Europe (French)]</ref>, and it causes 1.1 million premature deaths in India and China<ref>[https://www.sciencesetavenir.fr/nature-environnement/l-inde-rattrape-la-chine-en-nombre-de-morts-de-la-pollution_110560 India catches up with China in the number of deaths from pollution (French)]</ref>.

	== Facilitation ~~tips~~ ==		== Facilitation advice ==
	This card ~~could~~ be removed most of the time, unless the ~~participants~~ are ~~at a good level~~, have time and the facilitator has a good grasp of the subject.		This card can be removed most of the time, unless the players are likely to understand it, have the time and the facilitator has a good grasp of the subject.

	[[En-en adult card 13 additional greenhouse effect\|Card 13]] can be used to explain this: Aerosols mainly play on the orange arrows (they increase the size of the "Reflection" arrow, while the additional greenhouse effect plays on the red arrows (it increases the size of the "Greenhouse Effect" arrow which returns to the earth).		[[En-en adult card 13 additional greenhouse effect\|Card 13]] can be used to explain this: Aerosols mainly play on the orange arrows (they increase the size of the "Reflection" arrow, while the additional greenhouse effect plays on the red arrows (it increases the size of the "Greenhouse Effect" arrow which returns to the earth).
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	== References ==		== References ==
	<references />		<references />

			[[fr:Fr-fr_adulte_carte_10_aérosols]]

Ouahcene: /* Definitions */

2021-02-12T16:59:48Z

Definitions

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:59, 12 February 2021
Line 6:		Line 6:

	== Definitions ==		== Definitions ==
	Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.		Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.

	== To go further ==		== To go further ==

Ouahcene: /* Definitions */

2021-02-12T16:58:48Z

Definitions

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:58, 12 February 2021
Line 6:		Line 6:

	== Definitions ==		== Definitions ==
	Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#~~En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing~~\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.		Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.

	== To go further ==		== To go further ==

Ouahcene: /* Definitions */

2021-02-12T16:57:33Z

Definitions

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:57, 12 February 2021
Line 6:		Line 6:

	== Definitions ==		== Definitions ==
	Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[~~Index.php?title=~~En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#~~Cooling effects~~\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.		Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.

	== To go further ==		== To go further ==

Ouahcene: /* Definitions */

2021-02-12T16:56:33Z

Definitions

← Older revision		Revision as of 18:56, 12 February 2021
Line 6:		Line 6:

	== Definitions ==		== Definitions ==
	Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.		Aerosols are solid or liquid particles suspended in the air, generally ranging in size from a few nanometres to 10 micrometres and which remain in the atmosphere for at least several hours. Aerosols can be of natural or human origin (through [[En-en adult card 4 transportation\|transportation]] or [[En-en adult card 2 industry\|industry]]). They can affect the climate in a variety of ways: [[Index.php?title=En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing#Cooling effects\|directly]], by scattering or absorbing radiation, and [[En-en adult card 15 radiative forcing\|indirectly]] by acting as condensation nuclei of clouds or glaciogenic cores, by modifying the optical properties and lifetime of clouds.

	== To go further ==		== To go further ==